History Of Hawaii
May 31, 2009 | Filed Under Civil War | No Comments
The Aloha State became the 50th United State in 1959 but Hawaii already enjoyed a proud and magical history. More than 15 centuries ago, Polynesian explorers and settlers first arrived in big canoes from the Marquesas Islands more than 2000 miles away. 500 years later, Tahitians arrived. With the new settlers came Tahiti’s strict traditional social hierarchy based upon the kapu or taboo system and the Tahitian’s strong beliefs in gods and demigods. A strong Hawaiian culture laden with fierce territorial and boundary disputes between chieftains and their tribes soon emerged. Captain James Cook arrived at Kauai at Waimea Bay in 1778. Cook promptly named the archipelago after the Earl of Sandwich. Cook’s discovery opened the Sandwich Islands’ doors to trade and settlement from the west. Captain Cook was killed a year after his discovery in Kealakekua Bay on Hawaii’s big island. In 1791 Kohala united the Big Island’s warring tribes. Kohala proved a masterful negotiator and politician who knew how to use a big stick when necessary. Kohala used these skills to unify the Hawaiian Islands into one royal kingdom in 1810. In 1819, Kohala’s son and ruling monarch, Liholiho abolished the kapu or taboo system. In 1820, the first Protestant missionaries settled on the Big Island. Gradually, Hawaii became a popular port for seafarers, seamen, traders and whalers. With the influx of foreigners came western diseases. the Hawaiian population suffered heavy death tolls for many years. American colonists controlled much of Hawaii’s economy. In 1893, these colonists overthrew the native governance and in a peaceful, but complex coup took control of the islands. During the coup, Queen Liliuokalani was deposed. American Sanford B. Dole was voted in as President of the Republic of Hawaii in 1894. In 1898, Hawaii was annexed by the United States and was declared a U.S. territory in 1900. During the 20th century the islands received international attention for their convenient location as well as for the prosperous success of the sugar and pineapple plantations. Immigrants arrived from Portugal, the Philippines, China and Japan. Meanwhile, the U.S. built and maintained a mammoth naval base at Pearl Harbor on Oahu Island. On December 7th, 1941, the Japanese launched a devastating attack on Pearl Harbor. Four years later, Japan signed an unconditional surrender aboard the Battleship Missouri. As a remembrance, the battleship still resides at Pearl Harbor. the beautiful Hawaiian Islands have a magical allure. Blessed with mild tropical temperatures, cane sugar, pineapple, flowers and nursery products are the main exports of the state. Visitors and natives enjoy with interest the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park on Hawaii, Maui’s Haleakala National Park, Hawaii’s Puuhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park, the Polynesian Cultural Center on Oahu, and the Pearl Harbor Memorial. the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific on Oahu and the Bishop Museum in Honolulu are well-known museums. Honolulu also features Iolani Palace, the only royal palace in the Untied States, and the romantic beaches of Waikiki. Honolulu on Oahu Island is the capital of the state. the current governor is Republican Linda Lingle. Her term expires in 2010. the Lieutenant Governor is Republican James Aiona. State Senators are Democrat Daniel K. Akaka and Democrat Daniel K. Inouye. Aptly nicknamed the Aloha State, Hawaii consists of 5 counties with Honolulu having the largest population (905,266). Hawaii is the biggest county with 4,028 square miles. the islands feature 52 state parks and 19 natural area reserves. Honolulu is the largest city on the islands and is followed by Hilo, Kailua and Kaneohe. the population of Hawaii is 1,275,194. Romance, arts and local culture have made Hawaii a tourist mecca. Each island tells its own story and has its own allure. the beaches, the music, the food and the healthy surroundings make Hawaii a treasured spot to live and visit.
About The Author Article Source:http://www.articlesbase.com/history-articles/history-of-hawaii-946023.html
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The Mystery Of Halloween - How It All Began
May 30, 2009 | Filed Under Civil War | No Comments
Halloween’s history, like many celebrations of old, date back to the rituals of pagans and is mixed in with practices of the church. Halloween’s name dates back to various places and time. Many say its origin comes from the Celtic festival known as Samhain (pronounced “sah-win”). The festival of Samhain was a celebration of the end of the harvest season and was a time used by the ancient pagans to take stock of supplies and prepare for winter. Samhain or All Hallowtide was also a time where boundaries between the worlds of the living and the dead overlapped and the deceased would come back to life and cause havoc such as sickness or damaged crops. Masks and costumes were worn by the people to mimic the evil spirits or at least appease them. Some say Samhain was a demon and that people are dressing to appease demons, but there has been no archaeological or literary evidence to indicate Samhain was a demon. The Celtic Gods of the dead were Gwynn ap Nudd for the British, and Arawn for the Welsh. The Irish did not have a “lord of death” as such. So now that we have covered the history of the name, where does trick-or-treating come in, you may ask? The practice of dressing up in costumes and begging door to door for treats on holidays starts in the Middle Ages, and includes Christmas wassailing. Trick-or-treating resembles the late medieval practice of “souling,” when poor folk would go door to door on Hallowmas (November 1), receiving food in return for prayers for the dead on All Souls Day (November 2). It originated in Ireland and Britain, although similar practices for the souls of the dead were found as far south as Italy. Shakespeare mentions the practice in his comedy The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1593), when Speed accuses his master of “puling [whimpering, whining], like a beggar at Hallowmas.” Despite this being an Irish and even English tradition, there is no evidence that souling was ever practiced in America, even with all of the immigration of Irish and English folks. Matter-of-fact, some believe trick-or-treating may have developed in America independent of this tradition. The earliest known reference to ritual begging on Halloween or trick-or-treating occurs in 1911, when a newspaper in Kingston, Ontario, near the border of upstate New York, reported that it was normal for the smaller children to go street guising (see below) on Halloween between 6 and 7 p.m., visiting shops and neighbors to be rewarded with nuts and candies for their rhymes and songs. It wasn’t until 1947 that national attention to trick-or-treating was given in an issue of the children’s magazine Jack and Jill. The custom had become firmly established in popular culture by 1952, when Walt Disney portrayed it in the cartoon Trick or Treat. So now that we have discussed trick-or-treating, what about those hallowed out pumpkins with faces carved in them? Again there are various tales and versions of how this may have begun. One story suggests it begins from Old Irish folklore. There is a tale of a man named Jack who was a lazy yet shrewd farmer who uses a cross to trap the Devil. The story says that Jack tricked the Devil into climbing an apple tree, and once he was up there Jack quickly placed crosses around the trunk or carved a cross into the bark, so that the Devil couldn’t get down. Another version of the myth says that because Jack had tricked the devil he was barred from hell as well as heaven. Having nowhere to go he asked the devil how he would see, as he had no light. The Devil mockingly tossed him an ember that would never burn out from the flames of hell. Jack carved out one of his turnips (which was his favorite food), put the ember inside it, and began endlessly wandering the Earth for a resting place. He became known as “Jack of the Lantern”, or Jack-o’-Lantern. Of course in the mid-17th century a night watchman, or man with a lantern, was also called a “Jacky Lantern” and “Jack the Lantern”. Today children and adults alike love Halloween due to its costumes and having the opportunity to dress up for one night. What sets Halloween costumes apart from costumes for other celebrations or days of dressing up is that they are often designed to imitate supernatural and scary beings. Halloween costumes are traditionally those of monsters such as vampires, ghosts, skeletons, witches, and devils. But there are no rules for Halloween, one can dress anyway they like. In this, there are also costumes of pop culture figures like presidents, or film, television, and cartoon characters. Halloween may have many stories regarding its beginning or how it became a tradition but one thing is for sure, it is here to stay and is recognized as an enjoyable time of the year for parties, gatherings and of course tricks or treats.
About The Author Article Source:http://www.articlesbase.com/history-articles/the-mystery-of-halloween-how-it-all-began-940628.html
Costume Alibi is a leading online retailer in the US of adult costumes and masks, childrens costumes and more. Visit online at http://www.costumealibi.com/ today for their complete line and have some fun!
In Bible versus Quran: they have not honored Allah with the Honor that is due to him
May 30, 2009 | Filed Under Civil War | No Comments
In Bible versus Quran: O peoples, O earth! Hear and listen (3)
This is the second article in the series: O peoples, O earth! Hear and listen in the Bible versus the Quran (3).
In the Bible, the Lord God says that He will 1) weep, 2) go about barefoot, 3) go about stripped and naked, 4) howl like a jackal, 5) moan like an owl, 6) lament and wail, 7) wail like the dragons etc. All of these actions are because of the wrath of God, the Judgment against Samaria and the destruction in Judah.
In the Quran, it is very indecorous to say that about our Creator. The Quran teaches people to pay attention to what they say about God (Allah), the Creator. Hence, the Quran considers this Biblical citation as a very disrespectful about God (Allah). Such citation may lead to the Loss of faith.
That is why; we are not allowed to believe in or to say anything impolite or disrespectful as regards our Creator, Allah. In other words, there are many warnings in the Quran: Do not mess up with Allah! If anyone does mess his faith up in respect to Allah, he ultimately will end up to be an inhabitant of the Eternal hell, the fierce Fire!
The given verses herein say that there is nothing like Allah; however, the people do not magnify Allah as He should be magnified. This is because they do not understand His true nature. What ails you that you do not fear Allah’s might and majesty?
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O peoples, O earth! Hear and listen in the Bible (3)
Micah 1:8
New International Version
8 Because of this I will weep and wail; I will go about barefoot and naked. I will howl like a jackal and moan like an owl.
New American Standard Bible
8 Because of this I must lament and wail, I must go barefoot and naked; I must make a lament like the jackals And a mourning like the ostriches.
English Standard Version
8 For this I will lament and wail; I will go stripped and naked; I will make lamentation like the jackals, and mourning like the ostriches.
King James Version
8Therefore I will wail and howl, I will go stripped and naked: I will make a wailing like the dragons, and mourning as the owls.
Young’s Literal Translation
8 For this I lament and howl, I go spoiled and naked, I make a lamentation like dragons, And a mourning like daughters of an ostrich.
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O peoples, O earth! Hear and listen in the Quran (2)
Verses 35:3-6 give the message of Allah to mankind.
The meaning of these verses:
Muslims believe that God has many qualities and names, one of the most significant of which is Allah, a word in Arabic signifying God for both Muslim and Christian Arabs. Another name of God, one that is more particular, is al-Khaliq (the creator).
God is beyond all comprehension;
Muslims are not expected to visualize God but to worship and adore him as a protector.
The Quran teaches people to pay attention to what they say about God (Allah), the Creator. Hence, the Quran considers this Biblical citation as a very disrespectful about God (Allah). Such citation may lead to the Loss of faith. That is why; we are not allowed to believe in or to say anything impolite or disrespectful as regards our Creator, Allah. In other words, there are many warnings in the Quran: Do not mess up with Allah! If anyone does mess up with Allah, ultimately he will end up to be an inhabitant of the Eternal fierce Fire, the hell.
The following verses say that there is nothing like Allah; however, the people do not magnify Allah as He should be magnified. This is because they do not understand His true nature. What ails you that you do not fear Allah’s might and majesty?
========================================
Verse 42:11 says:
There is nothing like Allah. Naught is as His likeness in attribute, knowledge, power and providence.
Verses 6:91, 22:74 and 39:67 say:
They have not measured Allah with His rightful and true measure
They have not extended Allah the grandeur that truly befits Him
They do not glorify Allah as He should be glorified
They do not magnify Allah as He should be magnified.
They do not esteem Allah with the esteem He deserves,
They do not exalt Allah with the exaltation truly worthy of Him,
But why people do not magnify Allah as He should be magnified?
Because they do not understand His true nature; They have not attained the true knowledge of Him.
Truly Allah is Powerful, Mighty, Victor.
He is the Hearer, of what is said and of what you say; He is the Seer, of what is done and the Seer of your works.
That is why verse 71:13 says:
What ails you that you do not fear Allah’s might and majesty?
What ails you that you do not magnify Allah as He deserves to be magnified and, thus, believe in His divine Oneness?
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The above verses in four different translations:
Verse 42:11
QARIB: …there is nothing like him. he is the hearer, the seer.
SHAKIR: …nothing like a likeness of him; and he is the hearing, the seeing
PICKTHAL: … naught is as his likeness; and he is the hearer, the seer.
YUSUFALI: …there is nothing whatever like unto him, and he is the one that hears and sees (all things).
Verse 39:67
QARIB: they have not valued Allah with his true value…
SHAKIR: and they have not honored Allah with the honor that is due to him…
PICKTHAL: and they esteem not Allah as he hath the right to be esteemed…
YUSUFALI: no just estimate have they made of Allah, such as is due to him…
Verse 22:74
QARIB: they do not value Allah as he should be valued. For Allah is powerful and mighty.
SHAKIR: they have not estimated Allah with the estimation that i due to him; most surely Allah is strong, mighty
PICKTHAL: they measure not Allah his rightful measure. lo! Allah is strong, almighty.
YUSUFALI: no just estimate have they made of Allah: for Allah is he who is strong and able to carry out his will.
Verse 6:91
QARIB: they have not valued Allah with his true value …
SHAKIR: and they do not assign to Allah the attributes due to him…
PICKTHAL: and they measure not the power of Allah its true measure…
YUSUFALI: no just estimate of Allah do they make…
Verse 71:13
QARIB: what is the matter with you that you do not want the greatness of Allah,
SHAKIR: what is the matter with you that you fear not the greatness of Allah?
PICKTHAL: what aileth you that ye hope not toward Allah for dignity
YUSUFALI: “‘what is the matter with you, that ye place not your hope for kindness and long-suffering in Allah.
Professor Dr. Ibrahim Khalil
Prof. of Clinical and Chemical Pathology,
Head of Clinical Microbiology and Infection Control Unit,
Ain-Shams University. Cairo, Egypt.
And, President of the Egyptian Society of Inventors.
Member of the Egyptian union of Writers
The Historical non-accepted Awards to the Prophet Muhammad
May 29, 2009 | Filed Under Civil War | No Comments
Many people do not know Allah. The aim of these articles is to help them in order to know and acknowledge their Creator.
In the Noble Quran, verses 6:13 describes an interesting historical event when the disbelievers said to Muhammad:
“Revert to our religion and we will give you whatever you want; we will give you a lot of money and make you the wealthiest among the Arabs; also, we will provide you with as many beautiful women as you like to marry them. But stop calling for your religion and revert to our religion”!
Allah sent the Angel Gabriel with this revealed verse:
“And to Allah, belongs everything; He is the Lord, the Creator and the Possessor; and He is the Hearer, of what is said, the Knower’, of what is done.”
The meaning of the verse:
And about their saying to Muhammad: “revert to our religion and we shall make you the richest one, we shall marry you with as many beautiful women as you like, we shall give you status and make you the king over us”,
Allah said:
“And to Allah, exalted be He, belongs all that inhabits, resides [in], the night and the day, that is to say, everything — He is its Lord, its Creator and its Possessor; and He is the Hearer, of what is said, the Knower’, of what is done.”
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Verse 6:13 in the available four different English translations:
QARIB:
His is whatever is at rest in the night and in the day. he is the hearing, the knowing.
SHAKIR:
And to him belongs whatever dwells in the night and the day; and he is the hearing, the knowing
PICKTHAL:
Unto him belongeth whatsoever resteth in the night and the day. he is the hearer, the knower.
YUSUFALI:
To him belongeth all that dwelleth (or lurketh) in the night and the day. for he is the one who heareth and knoweth all things.”
———————————–
Then the next verse, 6:14, says:
QARIB:
Say: ’should I take any but Allah for a guardian? he is the originator of the heavens and the earth. He feeds and is not fed. ‘Say: ‘I was commanded to be the first to submit to him. ‘Do not be one of the idolaters.
SHAKIR:
Say: shall I take a guardian besides Allah, the originator of the heavens and the earth, and he feeds (others) and is not (himself) fed. Say: I am commanded to be the first who submits himself, and you should not be of the polytheists
PICKTHAL:
Say: shall I choose for a protecting friend other than Allah, the originator of the heavens and the earth, who feedeth and is never fed? Say: I am ordered to be the first to surrender (unto him). and be not thou (O Muhammad) of the idolaters.
YUSUFALI:
Say: “shall I take for my protector any other than Allah, the maker of the heavens and the earth? And he it is that feedeth but is not fed.” say: “nay! But I am commanded to be the first of those who bow to Allah (in Islam), and be not thou of the company of those who join gods with Allah.”
Unlimited thanks are to Allah who has provided me with health, wealth, power, good family, love of people. However, the most honored thing that I should thank Allah for it is that I am Muslim and I am a descendent of the Last Prophet Muhammad. In this series, I will give you some examples of the treasures of the teaching of the Last Prophet Muhammad in order to realize how much does mankind lost by ignoring His teachings. Article Source:http://www.articlesbase.com/history-articles/the-historical-nonaccepted-awards-to-the-prophet-muhammad-942887.html
The Evolution Of Men’s Underwear
May 28, 2009 | Filed Under Civil War | No Comments
The first thing you put on, the last thing you take off, underwear - no matter in what shape or style - is the one thing that most men have in common. You may think they’re just pieces of cloth, protecting your parts and keeping them close, but what you’ve probably never realized is this: when you put on underwear, you’re participating in a historic act, passed down through the ages. Okay, maybe that’s putting too much on “leg in, leg in, pull up, adjust”, especially since the first underwear didn’t even have legs. The first type of part protection was the loincloth - stylish, comfortable and nothing more than a strip of leather with strings. Welcome to cave man days. Loincloths stayed in style for ages, but the material changed. Ancient Egyptians also used the loincloth, but decided linen was more comfortable than leather. Believing that underwear would be needed even in the afterlife, the ancient Egyptians buried their dead pharaohs with them. In fact, King Tutankhamen (also known as King Tut), was buried with over 140 loincloths; no matter what happened, he’d be prepared with a clean pair. In Greece, while the free peoples didn’t wear loincloths - they wore a body wrap from neck to knee - the slaves did. Ancient Romans, particularly gladiators, athletes and stage actors, wore subligaculums, a fancy name for loincloths or shorts. On to the Middle Ages and a time when people believed in magic, caused mayhem, wore clanking armor and decided that codpieces were needed. In the 13th century, the people realized how important underwear were, and threw off the loincloth. Braies, or baggy drawers, replaced the loincloth and introduced the whole act of “leg in, leg in, pull up, adjust”. With their importance recognized, underwear began to include undershirts and stockings as well. The original design of the braies were long, tying at the waist and mid-calf, but the Renaissance Era saw a change in design. The codpiece became essential, making it possible for a man to urinate without taking the braies off. This allowed the brais to be snug around the legs, rather than baggy. The codpieces were shaped to accentuate parts or - in the case of King Henry VIII and others - padded to greatly accentuate parts. The Victorian Era saw the first breathable cotton, as well as silk, and pre-civil war America saw the advent of flannel underwear. A modification of the breis, most underwear was knee-length, had a drawstring and a button overlap in front. As time moved on into the Industrial Revolution, underwear became the “union suit”. Basically a body suit, the union suit covered the entire body except for hands, face and feet, with a drop flap in the rear. Later, the suit included sleeveless and knee-length styles. Finally, in the 20th century, boxers replaced the union suit and, in the 1930s, the button was replaced by elastic waistbands. The name “boxers” came from professional fighters, who first wore the shorts. Then, with the advent of the Jockey Y-vent briefs, men’s underwear began coming in several styles and fabrics. During World War II, buttons came back into style because rubber and metal was in short supply, but color became an option. One of the main reasons for the adoption of colored underwear was because soldiers hung white briefs out to dry, which was entirely too conspicuous. Rather than the white, soldiers began being issued olive-colored briefs - better for camouflage. Rayon was introduced in the 1950s, briefs got bigger in the 1960s, and the thong and g-string showed up on the beaches of Brazil in the 1970s. Now, styles and fabrics range from the all-so-breathable cotton to silk to rayon, from boxer-briefs to just plain briefs. Interestingly enough, however, it all goes back to the loincloth, which is once again becoming all the rage in China. So - the next time you put on underwear, no matter the shape or style, remember that you’re participating in a time-honored tradition… “Leg in, leg in, pull up, adjust”!
About The Author Article Source:http://www.articlesbase.com/history-articles/the-evolution-of-mens-underwear-940655.html
At NuWear.com we focus exclusively on mens underwear for those who want to show off a hot physique or just have a little more fun. Our selection includes silk and satin to lounge wear in stretch microfiber and more. Visit http://www.nuwear.com/ online today.
French & Indian War – the Start of US History
May 27, 2009 | Filed Under Civil War | No Comments
It’s hard for us now to imagine George Washington as anything other than the stately, even regal figure staring back at us from the dollar bill or from the slopes of Mount Rushmore. But George Washington wasn’t always a stoic visage carved in granite. He was once just a young man, trying to stay ahead of shifting circumstances – just like anyone else. This May 28th marks the 255th anniversary of George Washington’s first brush with greatness… and also his first brush with catastrophe. He was 22 years old at the time and, like most of us at that age, he wasn’t quite sure what he was doing.
Conflict had been brewing for some time between the British and French Empires over who should have control over the Ohio Valley, the wilderness area sandwiched between Britain’s settlements on the Atlantic seaboard and France’s outposts in Canada. Washington led a small company of Virginia soldiers, accompanied by Indian allies, into the Ohio Valley to deliver a formal British ultimatum that the French leave the area. Instead, not far from the site of modern-day Pittsburgh, he ended up fighting a small pitched battle against a French outfit intending to send a diplomatic message of its own. After a few minutes of chaotic fighting, the French surrendered. Washington had won his first great victory! But then, to Washington’s surprise and horror, the Seneca chief Tanaghrisson – leader of the Indian warriors in Washington’s entourage – suddenly ordered a massacre of the surrendered French prisoners. The French sent a much larger force to retaliate, capturing Washington and his men just over a month later. While in their custody, perhaps confused or frightened, the young Washington signed a document (written in French, which he could not read) confessing to the deliberate assassination of a French diplomat. That was a war crime and it was also formal justification for war; with Washington’s confession secured, France declared war upon Britain.
The resulting conflict, the Seven Years War, might be regarded as the first true world war, and its outcome dramatically changed the history of the world. Fighting spread across Europe and to colonial outposts around the globe. In North America, it was better known to American colonists as the French & Indian War, and it was a war that had an enormous impact on the future of the continent.
In fact, it might not be an exaggeration to say that the French & Indian War marked the real beginning of US History. Before the war, there was little hint that Virginians and New Yorkers and Pennsylvanians and New Englanders saw themselves as part of a shared community; they regarded themselves as Englishmen abroad, or as citizens of their own specific colonies, but not as “Americans.” The experience of war changed that, forcing residents of various colonies to fight alongside each other and also demonstrating many serious differences between them and the British. It wasn’t a long journey from the end of the French & Indian War in 1763 to the first stirrings of the American Revolution in the 1770s. And to think that it all happened because a young George Washington, not quite sure what he was doing, allowed his first great victory to turn into a fiasco.
Shmoop is an online study guide for English Literature, Poems and American history. It’s a perfect aid for students and teachers seeking guidance with advance study, essays and writing papers. Its content is written by Ph.D. and Masters students from top universities, like Stanford, Berkeley, Harvard, and Yale who have also taught at the high school and college levels. It promises to make learning and writing more fun and relevant. Teachers and students should feel confident to cite Shmoop as a source in essays and papers. Article Source:http://www.articlesbase.com/history-articles/french-indian-war-the-start-of-us-history-937425.html
Hemingway & Fitzgerald
May 26, 2009 | Filed Under Civil War | No Comments
F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway: Both towering figures in the history of American literature, the two writers shared a complicated real-life relationship. At times they were friends, at times enemies; often they were drinking buddies, and always they regarded each other with an odd mixture of admiration and jealousy.
Fitzgerald, a few years older and the first to become a literary star, hooked an unpublished young Hemingway up with his editor at Scribner’s, helping to launch Hemingway’s career. Hemingway called Fitzgerald’s talent “as natural as the pattern that was made by the dust on a butterfly’s wings.” On the other hand, Hemingway got into a nasty war of words with Fitzgerald’s wife Zelda, and after Fitzgerald sent a ten-page letter full of mostly-constructive criticism on a draft of A Farewell to Arms, Hemingway offered a not-so-constructive three-word response: “Kiss my ass.”
They were both notorious alcoholics, and surely all the booze played its part in the two men’s prickly relationship, and in the failed relationships they both maintained with most of the people around them. Despite standing among the giants of American literature, both men ended up essentially drinking themselves to death.
Still, while neither man’s biography had a happy ending, both men’s novels live on. It’s easy to overlook the cranky pettiness that took over their real-life relationship when we’ve been left with the fictional majesty of The Great Gatsby or For Whom the Bell Tolls. Maybe somewhere in the great hereafter, Hemingway and Fitzgerald are sitting together, sharing a drink and having a laugh. Or a fight. Could be either, really.
Shmoop is an online study guide for English Literature, Poems and American history. It’s a perfect aid for students and teachers seeking guidance with advance study, essays and writing papers. Its content is written by Ph.D. and Masters students from top universities, like Stanford, Berkeley, Harvard, and Yale who have also taught at the high school and college levels. It promises to make learning and writing more fun and relevant. Teachers and students should feel confident to cite Shmoop as a source in essays and papers. Article Source:http://www.articlesbase.com/history-articles/hemingway-fitzgerald-937440.html
Who’s For Tea?
May 25, 2009 | Filed Under Civil War | No Comments
Tea’s proper use is to amuse the idle and relax the studios, to dilute the full meal of those who cannot use exercise and will not use abstinence.
Samuel Johnson 1709 - 1764
The tea we drink and know so well is actually a camellia, Camellia sinensis. First discovered as a tea, or, dried leaf tip that could be added to boiling water as a drink.
Its discovery was due to the ancient Chinese culture of herbal medicine and is traditionally attributed to Shen Nong, said to have lived about 2.500 years ago.
Teas origin was as a medicinal herb, used to “clear the mind” and was promptly adopted by scholars and Buddhist monks during meditation.
Although tea had been widely prepared as a drink throughout China for over 2000 years, we must remember that China, to the Europeans was totally unknown, except for very minor reports and references in books, i.e. from a Persian traveller in 1559 who mentions tea as a wonderful antidote to fever, headache and stomach ache!
It was, however, the Dutch who first imported tea into Europe in 1610 as a purely medicinal drink, but by 1637, tea was being imported into Holland as a hot drink with an increasing popularity. Holland, at this time, was the tea drinking country, not England.
Tea was drunk in England, on a small scale, however, tea arrived in England with a new vigor via the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, with the return to England of Charles ll, who had lived in exile among the tea drinking Dutch.
But it was via Portugal that tea drinking in England received its real boost. The Portuguese had, throughout the 15th century been Europe’s leading sea power, with a vast and adventurous merchant fleet trading between Lisbon, India and the southern Chinese port of Canton. Portugal had been the very first to encounter tea having a virtual control of trade to Asia until about 1600.
Portugal had been the first foreign power to be granted a trading concession by the Imperial Chinese government, with imported goods, hardly known in Europe, including silks, porcelain, lacquer ware and tea, establishing Lisbon as an important and wealthy city.
By the middle of the 17th century, tea was the drink of choice at the Portuguese court.
In 1661 a political union was established between England and Portugal and as was the style of the day, the political union was followed by a Royal marriage between England and Portugal, which symbolized the union between the two kingdoms.
In 1662 Princess Catherine of Braganza was sent to England to be the Royal bride of Charles ll. Catherine, now Queen of England, further promoted tea at the English court. The new Queens passion for tea firmly established tea drinking at court, which very quickly spread throughout high society.
Today, tea is an inexpensive drink enjoyed by anyone who wishes to drink it, but it was not always so. Tea in the 17th and 18th century was very expensive, indeed, a luxury drink enjoyed only by the wealthy classes.
We can still see preserved posters from Thomas Garway’s London tea and coffee shop, with tea priced at 16 to 60 shillings a pound! And in 1664 a poster, advertising tea at £4 5/- shillings for a little over two pound weight. In 1664 this was a vast amount of money, well beyond the purse of the average family.
By the early 18th century, the fashion for tea was gaining new ground and the price for standard grade tea had dropped to about 12 – 14 shillings a pound, a sum of money equal to the average weekly income of a master craftsman at the time.
With tea being a privilege of the rich, it soon became something to show-off about and the tea ceremony began to develop. This allowed the host to give a lavish display of wealth and status, in the 18th century, your wealth and social standing was something to display and the grander the display, the better.
The tea table became a social centre and to extend hospitality to guests could be an expensive exercise, we find a London magazine of 1744 reporting that it could cost more to maintain a fashionable tea table than to keep two children and a nurse!
In the 18th century, tea was usually served, mid afternoon, after dinner, which was served in the early afternoon. The lady of the house presided over the ritual of the tea table, which by now had become almost a ceremony, with rules of etiquette specific to “taking tea”. By example, there is a Thomas Rawlinson cartoon; named “The French Visitors”, The Frenchmen are seen, cross legged and red in the face, obviously, desperate to relieve themselves, written in the balloon shape coming from their mouths’ is “Please, Madam, no more tea!!” The joke, in 18th century terms, was that they did not know the tea table etiquette which required a guest to place his / her spoon in the tea cup to indicate to the hostess, no more, thank you.
This generous hostess had kept refilling the French visitor’s cups and they too polite to say, no more, thank you.
As the 18th century began to fade into the early 19th century, tea, now being grown by the British in India and Ceylon, became less and less expensive, eventually to become a staple of the poorer classes. Of particular benefit, although not understood at the time was the fact the drinking water was now being boiled, so that the many diseases spread by contaminated drinking water began to decline
The tea, that we know today, is a very inexpensive drink, enjoyed by millions, the elegant ritual of the tea table, now reduced to a mug and a tea bag.
Maurice Robertson, principal of The Antique and Vintage Table Lamp Co , has had a lifetime’s association with antique porcelain and pottery,with his commercial experience spaning a period of 40 years,including as a valuer to the Australian Government’s Incentive to the Arts Scheme. His long experience with antique ceramics and glass also includes dealing with leading museums and numerous international private collections. He has extended his ceramics expertise into the quality table lamps seen on the company’s site, he is well known to local and international interior designers who have included many of his table lamps in their projects and has also supplied items of national interest to the official Sydney residence of the Australian Prime Minister. The Antique and Vintage Table Lamp Co specialise in antique table lamp lighting with an on-line range of over 100 unique, antique and vintage lamps on view. © The Antique & Vintage Table Lamp Co 2009 Article Source:http://www.articlesbase.com/history-articles/whos-for-tea-923469.html
Lamps are shipped ready wired for the U.S, the U.K and Australia.
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Breve reseña de las características religiosas de la antigua civilización egipcia
May 24, 2009 | Filed Under Civil War | No Comments
Aspectos religiosos: La Cosmogonía egipcia.
“No son los proyectos de los hombres los que se realizan, sino la voluntad de Dios” Ptahotep [NACK 1996:110]
En la vida religiosa de los egipcios, nos sale al encuentro una caótica multiplicidad de nombres y figuras de divinidades. Esto se debe a que antes de la unificación del reino, cada una de las “tribus” que poblaban los oasis del Nilo tenían su propio dios protector y de que además, la religión egipcia descansa sobre una multiplicidad de potencias divinas, ya que estos creían que el alma separada de la materia actúa como rectora de la existencia orgánica. Estas almas viven en todas las cosas y todos los seres vivos y son la causa de los fenómenos naturales.
“Los egipcios son los más religiosos de los hombres”, decía Heródoto. La creación del mundo- Como la mayoría de los pueblos primitivos, también los egipcios intentaron explicar el origen del universo, que se puede resumir la explicación de esta manera: Decían que al principio solo existía el Océano. Del caos de las aguas inmensas surgió el mundo coordinado. Un huevo emerge del mar, y de él nace el dios solar, Ra. Tiene cuatro hijos: Sju y Sefnut, Geb y Nut. Geb, el dios de la tierra, tiene la forma de un hombre tendido, que corresponde al estrecho y largo del valle del Nilo; sobre su espalda crecen plantas. Nut es levantada al espacio encima de su marido y se convierte en la diosa del cielo, que se inclina sobre la tierra. Geb y Nut son luego los padres de las dos parejas de divinas Osiris e Isis, Set y Nephtys. Así, pues, el mito cosmogónico egipcio no trata de la creación del mundo de la nada, sino de una separación y ordenación del caos. De este mito de la creación surgió la concepción de la enéada, un grupo de nueve divinidades, y de la tríada, formado por un padre, una madre y un hijo divinos. Sin embargo, la más importante enéada fue la de Ra y sus hijos y nietos. Este grupo era venerado en Heliópolis, el centro del culto al Sol en el mundo egipcio. Como ya hemos dicho cada una de las ciudades de Egipto tenían su grupo de dioses, distintos de los de las ciudades vecinas. En Menfis el dios principal se llamaba Ptah; en Tebas, Amón; en Heliópolis, Ra; en Abydos, Osiris; en Denderah, el personaje principal era la diosa Hathor. Aunque el único dios importante que fue venerado de manera constante fue Ra, jefe de las deidades cósmicas, de quien los primeros reyes egipcios se proclamaban descendientes. Eran efectivamente un pueblo que se ocupaba mucho de su religión. El dios principal de ellos era el dios- sol, al cuál imaginaban de distintas formas y le atribuían diferentes nombres; entre ellos: 
Ra, a quien representaban como un rey majestuoso, (en la imágen junto a Osisris) vestido a la manera del Faraón. Lleva a la cabeza el disco solar coronado por una serpiente, símbolo del fuego devorador del sol del estío. Boga a través de los aires en una barca conducida por vigorosos remeros. En cuanto se alza en el horizonte, “los rayos vivos de sus ojos penetran en todos los seres y le dan fuerzas” [112:1996]. Va de pie en la cámara de su barca, y desde allí combate y derrota a todos sus enemigos. Todas las noches desciende detrás del horizonte y efectúa el mismo recorrido por el mundo subterráneo. Su salida y puesta, de exactitud matemática, su curso anual, que nada puede influenciar, hacen de él el símbolo del orden universal, el celador del Derecho y de las relaciones entre las criaturas humanas. [GRIMAL, 1996: 158] La casa sacerdotal de Ra vio como aumentaba gradualmente su influencia en la corte, hasta que en la V dinastía se convirtió en costumbre asociar el nombre del faraón con el del dios. Según la leyenda los soberanos descienden de Ra, por lo cuál llevan el título real: Hijo de Ra. Se le representa también montado en un carro del que tiran chacales. Ra desbancó al primitivo dios Atum. Horus, es un guerrero victorioso que todas las mañanas aparece en el horizonte en figura de hermoso joven, éste cruza el cielo y combate contra el demonio de la oscuridad, Set, que devora la luz. Todos los días lo vence, pero Set recobra sus fuerzas y la lucha se repite al día siguiente. Horus, también representado como el dios- halcón, alcanzó una elevada jerarquía ya en el primer período monárquico. La altura a la que vuela tuvo expresión en su nombre que significa, “el de las alturas”, y condujo a la institución de un dios del cielo. 
Se propago la tradición que cada rey era la encarnación terrena del dios, y el nombre Horus se convirtió en uno de los títulos reales. Estos dioses no vivían solos, cada uno tenía su mujer y su hijo. La diosa era una divinidad del cielo, y se le representaba con dos cuernos encima de la cabeza y en medio de ellos apareciendo el disco solar. El dios- hijo era representado, por lo general, como un niño. Además de estas divinidades celestes, los egipcios adoraban a los dioses y las diosas de las cosechas y de las mieses que hacían el suelo fecundo, el dios del Nilo, las diosas- lunas, y los demonios maléficos de la noche que se representaban en forma de gatos o leones. Se adoraba a los dioses benéficos para pedirles salud y abundancia en las cosechas, y a los dioses malos para calmar su cólera. Pero cuando todos los egipcios se hubieron reunido en una nación los habitantes de cada ciudad adoptaron los dioses de las demás ciudades, y se formó una religión común en todo el país a todo el país, de la que eran sus dioses principales Osiris e Isis. Según la leyenda, Osiris, adorado primeramente en Abydos, era el dios de la luz, dios bienhechor, enemigo de su hermano Set, demonio de la noche. Osiris salía por la mañana “del Océano del cielo”, y brillaba durante el día. Por la noche su hermano Set, a causa de sus celos, le mata a traición y le despedaza. Su mujer Isis lora sobre su cadáver, luego lo entierra, Osiris, no puede volver a reinar en los cielos. Entonces Osiris enterrado recibe las almas de los muertos, este es el tribunal de Osiris. Set, cubre la tierra de tinieblas y terror, y es así que el hijo de Osiris y de Isis, el joven Horus, sale del horizonte en busca de su tío y venga a su padre. Muchas ciudades pretendían tener en su santuario, uno de los pedazos del cuerpo de Osiris. En todo Egipto se celebraba anualmente una fiesta en honor del dios. En ese día, las mujeres lanzaban gritos y se arrancaban el pelo en memoria de as lamentaciones de Isis. En Sais, los sacerdotes representaban en un lago sagrado las escenas de la vida de Osiris, su muerte y su resurrección. Heródoto asistió a estas representaciones, pero estaba prohibido contar lo que allí sucedía.
Animales Sagrados- Los egipcios representaban también a sus dioses con cuerpo de animal y cabeza humana. La Esfinge, imagen de Harmakhis, es un león con cabeza humana. Es más frecuente que el dios tenga cuerpo humano y cabeza de animal. Horus tiene cabeza de gavilán, Thot de ibis, Anubis de chacal, Ptah de toro, Isis es una mujer con cabeza de vaca, Sekhet, mujer con cabeza de leona. De esta suerte, un mismo dios podía ser representado de cuatro maneras: Horus, por ejemplo, con forma de gavilán o con forma de hombre, o de gavilán con cabeza humana, o de hombre con cabeza de gavilán. Adoraban también los egipcios a ciertos animales que consideraban divinos: el león, el cocodrilo, el buey, el carnero, el chacal, el gato, el gavilán, la ibis, el escarabajo. De estos animales, algunos solamente eran adorados en todo Egipto, y otros eran sagrados nada más que para los habitantes de determinadas provincias. Los habitantes de Tebas adoraban a los cocodrilos, pero los habitantes de Elefantina los mataban. El hipopótamo no era considerado divino más que por los habitantes del Alto Egipto. Estos animales eran sagrados y era un crimen hacerles daño. En los santuarios se mantenía un animal vivo al que los fieles iban a adorar. Una de las fuentes, un doctor de la Iglesia cristiana, Clemente de Alejandría, se burlaba de esta costumbre;
“Si entráis en un templo, un sacerdote se adelanta gravemente, entonando un cántico, y levanta un velo para mostraros al dios. ¿Qué veis entonces?, un gato, un cocodrilo, una serpiente, o algún otro animal. El dios de los egipcios aparece, es un animal silvestre que se revuelca en un tapiz purpúreo”. [Clemente de Alejandría en: SEIGNOBOS: pp. 46]
En Tebas y en Shodú, los sacerdotes tenían un cocodrilo domesticado. Les ponían en las orejas anillos de oro o de porcelana y en las patas brazaletes. El viajero de Estrabón, que vivía en tiempo de Jesucristo, se refiere así a su visita al cocodrilo de Shodú; “Nuestro huésped cogió tortas, pescado asado y una bebida hecha con miel, y luego nos condujo al lago. El animal estaba tendido a la orilla. Los sacerdotes se le acercaron, dos de ellos le abrieron la boca y otro echo en ellas primero las tortas, luego el pescado y por último el brebaje. El cocodrilo se lanzó al agua y fue a tenderse a la otra orilla. Otro extranjero llegó con la misma ofrenda que nosotros, y los sacerdotes la cogieron, dieron la vuelta al lago, se apoderaron otra vez del cocodrilo y le hicieron tragar la ofrenda del mismo modo”. [Ibíd.: pp. 46]
En Mendes se adoraba a un macho cabrío; en Heliópolis un ave de paso. Los griegos la llamaban fénix.
El buey Apis- En Menfis, el animal sagrado era el buey Apis. Es el signo preferido de la fecundidad del ganado y de la fuerza: pisotea a sus enemigos. No era un buey común, tenía que ser negro, ostentar en la frente una mancha blanca en forma triangular, en el lomo la figura de un águila, en la lengua un ala de escarabajo, y los pelos de la cola habían de ser dobles. Se decía que nacía de un rayo caído del cielo. Cuando aparecía un Apis, los sacerdotes, después de haber reconocido las señales que ostentaba, lo instalaban en una capilla próxima al templo de Ptah y le rendían culto. Según las inscripciones en los templos, no debía vivir más de veinticinco años, pero si el animal llegaba a esta edad los sacerdotes, con gran ceremonia, lo ahogaban en una fuente sagrada, lo enterraban en un sarcófago de granito y luego buscaban otro. Culto de Amón- Cuando Tebas llegó a ser capital de Egipto durante la XI dinastía, el dios de esta ciudad, Amón, tuvo el más grande de todos los templos y fue considerado el principal de los dioses. Los sacerdotes lo representaron como un ser perfecto, eterno y todopoderoso, que ha creado todo y no ha sido creado, “el padre de los padres, la madre de las madres”. Decían que los demás dioses habían sido creados por él, o que eran el mismo dios con otro nombre. Frecuentemente se lo designaba con varios nombres a la vez, Amón- Ra- Harmakhis. Los sacerdotes cantaban en honor de Amón himnos en los cuales se ensalzaba su poder. Se lo representa bogando por el cielo en su barca. Los remeros son las almas de los hombres virtuosos, un dios va de pie en la proa, armado con una lanza, y otro dios va al timón. Posteriormente la figura de Amón se fusionó con la de la ilustre divinidad solar Ra, para constituir un ser divino, el dios solar Amón- Ra, que bajo la mascara de Amón reinó hasta el fin de la época faraónica. Solo con la destrucción de Tebas por los asirios, se produjo el ocaso de este culto, y Osiris pasó a la categoría de dios máximo. Embalsamamiento de cadáveres- Los egipcios creían que cuando un hombre muere algo de él continúa viviendo. Este algo lo llamaban el doble y lo imaginaban como una especie de sombra o fantasma, semejante al cuerpo, que se podía ver, pero no tocar.
Lo llamaban también alma y lo representaban en forma de gavilán con cabeza humana, que salía volando de la boca en el momento de la muerte. Pensaban que el alma o doble, tenía a su vez la necesidad de un cuerpo, y por esta razón era necesario que se le prestara un servicio a su cadáver para impedir la descomposición del mismo. Heródoto se refiere a como se procedía: “Hay en cada ciudad, embalsamadores de profesión. Cuando los parientes del muerto llevan el cuerpo al embalsamador, este les muestra modelos pintados de madera y les pregunta cuál quieren. Hay tres clases de precios diferentes, representando el modelo más caro al dios Osiris. Cuando los parientes han convenido el precio, se van, pues el embalsamador trabaja en su casa. ”En el embalsamamiento de primera clase, empieza por sacar el cerebro haciéndolo pasar por las narices con un hierro encorvado y disolviéndolo con un líquido que hace penetrar en la cabeza. Luego abre el costado, saca por la abertura los intestinos, los lava con vino de palma, los espolvorea con aromas machacados. Enseguida llena el vientre de mirra, canela y otros perfumes y lo vuelve a coser. Así preparado, el cadáver es metido en sal sosa por espacio de setenta días. Pasados estos, es lavado y fajado con vendas de tela untadas de goma. Se les devuelve entonces a los parientes, que mandan a hacer una caja de madera de la forma del cuerpo humano, en la cual se mete al muerto, colocándolo en una sala de pie, apoyado en la pared. ”Para el embalsamamiento de segunda clase, se inyecta con una jeringa resina de cedro en el vientre del cadáver, sin hacer abertura ni sacar los intestinos, y se tapona para impedir la salida del líquido. Luego el cuerpo permanece setenta días en sal sosa, y cuando se saca se suelta el líquido que sale del vientre arrastrando consigo los intestinos que ha disuelto. La sosa ha devorado las carnes, no queda del cuerpo más que la piel y los huesos. El embalsamador devuelve el cadáver sin envolverlo. ”El embalsamamiento de tercera clase es el utilizado por los pobres. Se inyecta solamente en el cuerpo un líquido y se mete el cadáver en sal sosa”. [Heródoto en: Ibíd.:pp. 149] Los cadáveres así preparados son momias. Estas están metidas en cajas de madera adornadas con pinturas, cajas que reproducen la forma de las estatuas del dios Osiris. Culto a los muertos- Creían los egipcios que el doble del muerto conservaba las mismas necesidades e iguales sentimientos que el individuo vivo, que hasta tenía la necesidad de ser alimentado, vestido y alojado. Los pobres se contentaban con enterrar las momias en la arena. Los ricos les preparaban un alojamiento, la morada eterna. La tumba era como una casa, o, por lo menos, como una habitación. En tiempo de las primeras dinastías, el muerto habitaba en una especie de casa llamada mastaba. Durante la IV dinastía se encontró este abrigo insuficiente y se alojo el muerto en una pirámide. Hay cerca de Menfis toda una ciudad de pirámides, alineadas unas como las casas de una calle, y las otras dispersas. En las más majestuosas están enterrados los reyes, en las otras que le siguen en tamaño y majestuosidad, están enterrados grandes personajes, ya que se necesitaba ser muy rico para poder construir una pirámide. Comúnmente la tumba es un subterráneo construido bajo la arena o en la roca. Delante hay una capillita que se abre al exterior. Cuando se penetra en ella se ve en el fondo una losa de piedra puesta de pie, que semeja una puerta cerrada. Al pie hay una mesa baja de piedra, en la cual se depositan las ofrendas. Esta capilla es la única parte de la tumba en donde tienen derecho a entrar los vivos, todo lo demás pertenece al muerto, y no se quiere que se pueda mostrar. Por eso no se ha hecho puerta que conduzca a su morada. Detrás del muro del fondo de la capilla, comienza un corredor estrecho y oscuro, donde se han puesto las estatuas del muerto. Hay en ocasiones más de veinte y están destinadas a sustituir la momia en caso de que sea destruida: son otros tantos dobles del muerto. En un rincón se abre un pozo construido con hermosas piedras talladas o excavado en la roca, de doce o quince metros de profundidad, a veces de treinta. En el fondo del pozo, un pasillo pequeño conduce a la verdadera morada del muerto, que es una cripta labrada en la roca. En medio se alza un sarcófago de piedra rojiza, negra o blanca. Allí reposa el muerto en perpetuo silencio. Obreros que han bajado al pozo le han depositado y han puesto a su lado grandes vasijas de barro encarnado llenas de agua, dátiles, trigo, cuartos de buey; luego han tapiado la entrada del pasillo y llenado el pozo con piedra partida mezclada con arena o tierra regada con agua. De esta manera, nadie puede bajar a la cripta. Al enterrar al muerto, se habían puesto a su lado provisiones, porque se creía que las necesitaría en el más allá. Pero había que renovar estas provisiones, y como no era posible bajar a la tumba, se depositaban en la capilla que estaba abierta. Se llevaban frutas, grasa e incienso, y se quemaba todo para que el olor entrase hasta las estatuas. Mas tarde, los egipcios creyeron que no era necesario ofrecer al muerto objetos materiales, que bastaba rogar a un dios bienhechor que se los diese. Creyeron también los egipcios que bastaba dar al muerto la imagen de los objetos. Las paredes de las capillas están cubiertas de pinturas que representan todo lo que se le quería hacer llegar al difunto. Se ven campesinos que labran, siembran y cosechan el trigo, obreros que hacen vestidos y calzados, carpinteros, albañiles, juglares y bailarines. Se ve al muerto a la mesa con su mujer, o de caza en el desierto, o pescando en las lagunas cubiertas de papiros. En la capilla se reunían en días determinados los descendientes del muerto, y allí hacían una comida fúnebre, a la que se suponía asistía su antepasado. A los reyes se los adoraba del mismo modo que al dios. Los faraones muertos tenían sacerdotes encargados de guardar su capilla y de celebrar las fiestas funerarias. Juicio de los muertos- Llegó un tiempo en que los egipcios dejaron de creer que el alma permanece en la tumba donde se ha colocado el cuerpo. Pensaron que todas las almas iban a reunirse bajo tierra, en el sitio donde se pone el sol. En aquel país subterráneo, el reino del Oeste, reinaba el dios Osiris, y en él no admitía las almas hasta después de haberlas juzgado. Al dejar el cuerpo, el alma se internaba en las galerías oscuras, para luego ser transportada en una barca por un río subterráneo. Encontraba al paso demonios de horrible figura que trataban de hacerla pedazos, pero los dioses, Anubis, (el dios de los muertos, representado con cabeza de chacal y cuerpo de hombre, que en el culto de los muertos cuida del embalsamamiento de los cadáveres, y es siempre el celador de los cementerios; también uno de los dioses más importantes del más allá), y Thot, (dios de la sabiduría y de la división del tiempo; patrón de los escribas, en el reino de los muertos oficiaba de intérprete, representado con cabeza de ibis), la guiaban y defendían. Estos dos intervienen en el juicio de los muertos. Llegaba, el muerto, al fin ante el tribunal. Osiris lo presidía, rodeado de cuarenta y dos asesores, encargados de comprobar si el muerto había cometido alguno de los cuarenta y dos principales pecados. Los cuarenta y dos asesores también representaban, todas las ciudades de Egipto. Se situaban las acciones del juzgado en la balanza de la justicia, y según fuesen pesadas o ligeras, el alma era condenada o absuelta. El alma condenada caía en un sitio horrendo y era azotada, combatida por la tempestad, atormentada por escorpiones y serpientes, y acabada por ser aniquilada. El alma que se había justificado pasaba todavía por otras pruebas, adoptaba nueva forma (de gavilán de oro, de fénix, de loto, etc.). Había de escapar a los espíritus malvados, que tomaban forma de cocodrilos o de serpientes. Al fin era admitida en la compañía de los dioses y llevaba eternamente una existencia feliz, a la sombra de los sicomoros en un ambiente refrescado por las brisas del Norte, comiendo a la mesa con Osiris platos preparados por una diosa y respirando perfumes divinos. Querían los egipcios que el alma, en el momento que pasaba a ser juzgada, pudiera defender su causa ante Osiris. Colocaban entonces, al lado de la momia, en el féretro, un librillo, el Libro de los muertos, en que se indicaba todo lo que el alma debía decir a Osiris, y hacer para mantener a los demonios alejados.
Había de dirigirse a Osiris en estos términos:
“¡Homenaje a ti, Señor de verdad y de justicia! He venido a ti, oh dueño mío, para contemplar tus perfecciones. Conozco tu nombre y el de los cuarenta y dos dioses que están contigo.” [Libro de los muertos: capítulo CXXV] Luego debía justificarse: “No he cometido ningún fraude contra los hombres. No he atormentado a la viuda. No he mentido ante el tribunal. No he sido holgazán… No he hecho lo que es abominable para los dioses. No he quitado las provisiones o las vendas a los muertos. No he alterado las medidas a los granos. No he usurpado la tierra. No he vendido con pesas falsas ni falseado la balanza. No he cazado los rebaños sagrados en sus pastos, ni cogido con red las aves divinas, ni pescado los peces sagrados. No he cortado un canal. No he rechazado al dios en su procesión. ¡Soy puro, soy puro, soy puro!” [Ibíd.] Debía el alma repetir las mismas frases cuarenta y dos veces a los demás dioses, y luego enumerar sus buenas acciones: “Se ha conciliado a Dios por su amor, ha dado pan al que tenía hambre, agua al que tenía sed, vestidos al que estaba desnudo, barca al que se veía detenido en su viaje. Ha ofrecido sacrificios a los dioses, comidas fúnebres a los muertos. Libradle, no habléis contra él ante el señor de los muertos, porque su boca es pura y sus manos son puras”. [Ibíd.] Casi todas las tumbas, a partir de la IX dinastía, poseen un ejemplar de este libro. Muchas veces se reproducían pasajes de él en las paredes, estatuas incluso en los féretros.
Bibliografía
-BOTTÉRO, J, CASSIN y E. VERCOUTTER, J. Los imperios del Antiguo Oriente III. Editorial Siglo Veintiuno, México, Argentina, España, 1972.
-GRIMAL, Nicolás. Historia del Antiguo Egipto. Akal Ediciones, Madrid España, 1996.
-HERÓDOTO. Heródoto; Libro II. Texto revisado y traducido por Berenger Jaime, Volumen II, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid- Barcelona, MCMLXXI, 1971.
-Libro De Los Muertos. Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1979, La Habana.
-NACK, Emil, Egipto y el próximo oriente en la antigüedad, Alianza Editorial.
-SANMARTÍN, Joaquín. SERRANO, José Miguel. Historia Antigua del Próximo Oriente. Akal Textos, Madrid España, 1998.
-SEIGNOBOS, Charles. Historia universal: Historia Antigua. Oriente y Grecia. Editorial Juan Carlos Granda, Buenos Aires, Tomo I, 1973.
Agustín Vicente Startari nació en Montevideo (Uruguay) el 29 de Septiembre de 1982. Desde su infancia se ha interesado siempre por la escritura, la historia y el conocimiento científico. Tras realizar la Enseñanza Secundaria Obligatoria, decide estudiar la rama del bachillerato de Derecho. Luego de finalizar el mismo, Agustín V. Startari deja de lado temporalmente la escritura y se concentra en sus estudios académicos ingresando a la Universidad de la República, específicamente a la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación. Sus primeros pasos los dará en la carrera de Ciencias Históricas, pero será aproximadamente en Marzo de 2005 cuando decide ampliar su proyección de estudios ingresando a la Licenciatura en Lingüística dónde encontrará su verdadera pasión en el conocimiento del lenguaje. Varios son sus trabajos de investigación realizados en ambas licenciaturas, sumadas a algunas obras ficcionales sin publicar aún. Actualmente se encuentra trabajando en proyectos literarios, que abarcan la ficción y la divulgación de la cultura científica. Article Source:http://www.articlesbase.com/history-articles/breve-resea-de-las-caractersticas-religiosas-de-la-antigua-civilizacin-egipcia-930101.html
History Of The Wheelchair
May 23, 2009 | Filed Under Civil War | No Comments
Many of us take the wheelchair for granted. Its design and function has evolved over the years - modified, improved and even motorized. So when was the first wheelchair invented and how did the wheelchair make its way into today? The earliest record of the wheelchair dates back to the 6th century with proof seen through Chinese inscriptions. Others say the wheelchair was invented during the times of Christ. But the best illustrated wheelchair design dates back to 1595 showing the wheelchair invented for King Phillip II of Spain. This drawing of the King shows him in his chair with its wheels, armrests and footrests. The chair was far from perfect in that it had to be pushed by an assistant and looked like a baby’s highchair, but it most likely provided great mobility. By 1665 an inventor named Stephan Farfler, a paraplegic watchmaker, came up with the idea of a self-propelled vehicle. This wheelchair looked more like a present day hand-bike as it was propelled by hand cranks attached to the front wheel. In 1783 John Dawson, an inventor from Bath, England, came up with the “Dawson’s Bath Chair”. Bath, a place where many invalids traveled to drink and bathe in the spa water, inspired Dawson. This chair with its third wheel that the occupant could steer by using an attached rigid handle was a great success. Dawson’s design evolved and changed over the years and included a chair that resembled a cart in that it came with a hood and glass front or it had to be pushed from behind or pulled by a small horse or donkey. During the nineteenth century, wheelchairs became less cumbersome and more comfortable. As a result, some users were able to turn the large rear wheels with their hands, although this could be unpleasant if the chair ran through a patch of mud. The problem was solved in 1881 when manufacturers began to add a second rim with a smaller circumference to each wheel. These rims kept the hands clean and were known as push rims. The push rims evolved later into a few varieties. A one-arm drive enables a user to guide and propel a wheelchair from one side. Two hand rims, one smaller than the other, are located on one side of the chair, left or right. On most models the outer, or smaller rim, is connected to the opposite wheel by a folding axle. When both hand rims are grasped together, the chair may be propelled forward or backward in a straight line. By the beginning of the twentieth century, wheelchairs had developed still further and boasted wire-spoke wheels, adjustable seat backs, and moveable arm and foot rests. There were also lightweight models made of wicker mounted on metal frames. By 1916, British engineers had produced the first motorized wheelchair, although the majority of users remained in manual versions, which were becoming much cheaper. Despite this, the chairs were still rigid and difficult to store and transport, particularly in cars. But in 1932, a Los Angeles engineer named Harry Jennings designed and built a folding wheelchair for his friend, Herbert Everest. The two men immediately saw the potential for this invention and established a company to mass-produce the new portable chairs. Together they founded Everest - Jennings, a company that monopolized the wheelchair market for many years. An antitrust suit was actually brought against Everest - Jennings by the Department of Justice, who charged the company with rigging wheelchair prices. The case was finally settled out of court. It hasn’t been until recently, within the last two decades that the wheelchair design has progressed. Today’s wheelchairs are lighter and perform better than ever before. Some chairs even have suspension systems, which help to remove vibrations and jolts. There are customized chairs and chairs with ultra-light weight frames which enable better performance. There are chairs with optional accessories available such as anti-tip bars or wheels, safety belts, adjustable backrests, tilt and/or recline features, extra support for limbs or neck, mounts or carrying devices for crutches, walkers or oxygen tanks, drink holders, and clothing protectors. Last is the electric wheelchair. These wheelchairs can be driven forwards, backwards, sideways, and diagonally, and also turned round on the spot or turned around while moving, all operated from a simple joystick. Early power chairs used belts in the drive train. The motor turned a rotor which had a belt wrapped around it, and the belt transmitted the power to the wheels. Today’s chairs use direct drive, meaning the motor turns gears, which in turn move the power through a gear transmission to the wheels. Direct drive is more reliable and needs less maintenance. Yes the wheelchair has come a long way and who knows what the wheelchair of tomorrow will look like as its design continues to progress.
About The Author Article Source:http://www.articlesbase.com/history-articles/history-of-the-wheelchair-932284.html
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